FS - Carbon Mineralization as a new Frontier for CSS Pathways

Development: CARBON MINERALIZATION AS A NEW FRONTIER FOR CCS PATHWAYS A solution that turns a natural process into an opportunity FS-EPE-DPG-SPG_02-2026 Overthepastdecades,CarbonCaptureandStorage(CCS)activitieshavebeenincreasinglyrecognizedasstrategic instrumentsfortheglobalenergytransition,beingregardedasbothnecessaryandtechnologicallyviablebymanycountries. EnhancedOilRecoveryusingcarbondioxide(CO₂)(EOR)hasbeenemployedintheUnitedStatesandCanadasincethe 1960sasameansofincreasingproductionfrommatureoilfields.In1972,thistechniqueachieveditsfirstlarge-scale applicationworldwidewiththelaunchoftheScurryAreaCanyonReefOperatingCommittee(SACROC)projectinTexas, UnitedStates. The1990smarkedanothermilestoneinthehistoryofCCSactivitieswiththestart,in1996,ofthefirstlarge-scaleCCS projectfocusedsolelyonreducingcarbonemissionsratherthanincreasinghydrocarbonproduction:theSleipnerprojectin theNorthSea,Norway.Sincethen,technologicaladvances,growingconcernsaboutclimatechange,andthematurationof regulatoryframeworksindifferentcountrieshavedriventheexpansionanddiversificationofCCSprojectsonaglobalscale. Althoughitsdeploymentremainsgradual,CCShas undergoneaphaseofsignificantlyacceleratedgrowthin recentyears.AccordingtotheGlobalCCSInstitute (GCCSI, 2025),thenumberofcommercialfacilities (thecombinedtotalofoperational,under-construction, andplannedprojects)increasedfrom628in2024to 734in2025.Thenumberofoperationalfacilitiesrose from50to77,resultingina23%increaseinglobal capturecapacityinjustoneyear,reaching approximately64MtCO₂peryearofinstalledcapture capacity. Source: GCCSI (2025) AccordingtotheGlobalCCSInstitute(GCCSI, 2025),therearemoreoperationalprojectsthat storecarbonthroughEnhancedOilRecovery (EOR)andsalinereservoirsthanprojectsthat storeCO₂indepletedhydrocarbonfieldsor throughthecarbonmineralizationprocess. ¹ According to the GCCSI database, only the CarbFixStorage project is identified as storing CO₂through carbon mineralization. However, the Climeworks Orca (Orca), Climeworks Mammoth (Mammoth), and Silverstone (Silverstone) projects, which are also included in the database, use the same storage method. The Silverstone project is a continuation of the CarbFixStorage project and, therefore, the two were considered as a single project. In addition, the Nesjavellir (Nesjavellir) project was included in the chart, although it does not appear in the GCCSI database. Source: Adapted from GCCSI (2025) ThisdocumentpresentstheCCSprocessthrough carbonmineralization,demonstratingitsfeasibility andadvantagesatboththeglobalandnational levels.ThisworkcontinuesEPE’sseriesof publicationsdedicatedtotheCCStopicand constitutesthethirdfactsheetintheseries.The factsheetsalreadypublishedinclude: CARBONCAPTUREANDSTORAGE:ABriefGuidetoOneoftheKey AlternativesforTransformingBrazil’sOilandGasSector (EPE, 2023) SALINERESERVOIRS:WhatLiesBehindOneoftheMainTargetsfor CarbonStorageSites?(EPE, 2024) JULY/2026 1 | 4 50 77 44 47 534 610 Number of comercial facilities in the world OperationalUnder-ConstructionPlanned 2024 2025 33 2 16 23 Storage types in operational projects Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) Depleted hydrocarbon fields Carbon mineralization process 4 Saline reservoirs No information

Why Explore CO₂ Mineralization? Inthenaturalcarboncycle,theresidencetimeofcarbonincreases progressivelyacrosstheEarth’sdifferentreservoirs(Snaebjörnsdóttiret al.,2020).Quantitatively,thelargestfractionofcarbonisstoredinthe lithosphere,predominantlyintheformofmineralsthatconstitute carbonaterocks(e.g.,limestone).Thisprovidesclearevidenceofthe stabilityofmineralcarbonstorageandservesasastrongindicationofwhy thissystemcanandshouldbeinvestigatedasacarbonsinkforthe carboncapturedthrougheffortsaimedatreducingemissionsfrompoint sourcesorremovingCO₂directlyfromtheatmosphere. JULY/2026 2 | 4 CO₂ Trapping Mechanisms Trapping mechanisms for (a) injection of pure CO₂and (b) injection of CO₂dissolved in water. Figure adapted from Orita and Cruz (2022) modified fromSnaebjörnsdóttiret al., 2020 CO₂canbeinjectedintogeologicalreservoirsintwodistinctways:initspureformor dissolvedinwater.Wheninjectedinitspureform(Figurea),carbondioxideisinitiallyretained beneathimpermeablerocklayersthroughwhatisknownasstructuralorstratigraphic trapping.Overtime,partofthegasbecomestrappedwithinsmallporespacesintherock (residualtrapping).Astheprocessevolves,CO₂graduallydissolvesintothegroundwater (solubilitytrapping),andeventuallyafractionofthedissolvedcarbonreactswithmineralsin therock,formingnewstableminerals(mineraltrapping).Thiscombinationofmechanisms progressivelyreducesthemobilityofCO₂,enhancingstoragesecurity;however,complete mineralconversionmaytakethousandsofyearsorlonger(Benson et al., 2005).Incontrast, whenCO₂isinjecteddissolvedinwater(Figureb),thereisnoneedforconfinementbeneath impermeablerocklayers,sincethefluidisnotbuoyantandthereforedoesnottendtomigrate towardthesurface.Followinginjection,solubilitytrappingoccursimmediately,andmineral trappingcanbeachievedwithinarelativelyshortperiodoftime,ontheorderofafewyears (lessthan10years)(Snaebjörnsdóttiretal.,2020) ThepossibilityofacceleratingmineraltrappingthroughtheinjectionofCO₂dissolvedinwater hasattractedgrowinginterest.Inthiscontext,itisworthnotingthatcarbonmineralization performsparticularlywellinreservoirscomposedofmaficandultramaficigneousrocks(Box 1). What Are Mafic and Ultramafic Igneous Rocks? Mafic and ultramafic igneous rocks are rich in ferromagnesian minerals, such as olivine, pyroxene, and amphibole, which generally give them a dark color and high density. Mafic rocks contain moderately low silica content, whereas ultramafic rocks have even lower silica content and a greater predominance of ferromagnesian minerals. gabbro basalt Examples of mafic rocks Examples of ultramafic rocks pyroxenite peridotite Figures from Britannica e IGC – USP ATMOSPHERE VEGETATION LITHOSPHERE OCEANS AND SOILS years decades centuries to millenia millions of years Carbon Cycle: Average Residence Time Althoughcarbonaterockstakemillionsofyearstoformnaturally,theprocessofmineralcrystallizationcanbeacceleratedthroughthe useofexistingtechnologies. Beyond their potential for carbon mineralization, mafic and ultramafic igneous rocks are also important sources of critical minerals, such as nickel, cobalt, chromium, and platinum- group elements, which are widely used in: BATTERIES LOW CARBON TECHNOLOGIESINDUSTRIAL APPLICATION

JULY/2026 3 | 4 Why do mafic and ultramafic rocks favor carbon mineralization? Maficandultramaficigneousrocks—composed predominantlyofmineralssuchaspyroxene,plagioclase, olivine,andamphibole—exhibithighgeochemicalreactivity withcarbondioxidedissolvedinwater.Duringrock–fluid interaction,thesemineralsundergodissolution,releasing divalentcations(Ca²⁺,Mg²⁺,andFe²⁺),whichreactwith carbonatespeciesderivedfromCO₂,resultinginthe formationofstablecarbonateminerals.Thehighpotentialof theserocksforthepermanentconversionofinjectedCO₂ canbedescribed,inasimplifiedmanner,bythefollowing carbonationreactions: CO₂(aq) + H₂O ⇌ H₂CO₃ ⇌ HCO₃⁻ + H⁺ ⇌ CO₃²⁻ + 2H⁺ (1) (Ca, Mg, Fe)²⁺ + HCO₃⁻ ⇌ (Ca, Mg, Fe)CO₃ + H⁺ (2) (Ca, Mg, Fe)²⁺ + CO₃²⁻ ⇌ (Ca, Mg, Fe)CO₃(3) Inthisprocess,dissolvedCO₂formscarbonicacid,which dissociatesintobicarbonateandcarbonateions(1).The cationsreleasedfrommaficandultramaficrocksreactwith thesespecies(2and3),promotingtheprecipitationof carbonatemineralssuchascalcite(CaCO₃),dolomite (CaMg(CO₃)₂),magnesite(MgCO₃),andsiderite(FeCO₃) (Orita and Cruz (2022) ). Carbonmineralizationisparticularlyefficientinporousand reactivemaficandultramaficrocks,especiallybasalts.These rocksarethemostabundantintheEarth'scrust,occurringin largevolumesinbothcontinentalbasalticprovincesand,even moreextensively,ontheoceanfloor. Current Projects Worldwide ProjectSilverstoneClimeworks OrcaNesjavellirClimeworks Mammoth StakeholdersCarbFix, ON PowerCarbFix, ON Power, ClimeworksCarbFix, ON PowerCarbFix, ON Power, Climeworks Start of operations2014202120232024 Capture technology Point-source CO₂capture from geothermal power plant emissions Direct Air Capture (DAC) Point-source CO₂capture from geothermal power plant emissions Direct Air Capture (DAC) Capture and Storage Capacity ~12,000 tCO₂/year since 2014. With integration into the Silverstone project (2021), 34,000 tCO₂/year 4,000 tCO₂/year3,0 mil tCO₂/year36,0 mil tCO₂/year Cost Received up to €3.9 million in funding from the European Union Innovation Fund US$ 10-15 MillionNo information available IcelandhoststhefourlargestCCSprojectscurrentlyinoperationthatusebasaltmineralizationforthepermanentstorage ofCO₂. Furthermore,theHajarproject(Oman), withanestimatedcapacityof1,000 tCO₂peryear,iscurrentlyunder construction(GCCSI, 2025). 44.01 andAirCapturewillcaptureCO₂through DirectAirCapture(DAC),andthe carbondioxidewillbedissolvedinwater beforebeinginjectedintoperidotites, whichareultramaficigneousrocks (Hajar). Holcimand44.01haveannouncedthe launchofthefirstpilotprojectto mineralizeCO₂capturedfromthe cementindustry:theFujairahproject (UnitedArabEmirates).Injectioninto peridotites,whichareultramaficigneous rocks,hasbegunatarateof5tonnes perdayandisexpectedtoincreaseto 20tonnesperday.Thewellhasan estimatedCO₂storagecapacityof 25,000tonnesperyear(Fujairah). Project references: Silverstone and Nesjavellir – Carbfix (carbfix.com) Orca and Mammoth – Climeworks (climeworks.com). Additional information: cinea.ec.europa.eu and geoengineeringmonitor.org Iceland Silverstone Climeworks Orca Nesjavellir Climeworks Mammoth United Arab Emirates Fujairah Omam Hajar

JULY/2026 EPE disclaims any responsibility for decisions or resolutions taken based on the use of the information contained in this report, as well as for the improper use of this information. Division of Oil, Gas ＆Biofuel Studies Oil and Gas Studies Department General Coordination Heloisa Borges Bastos Esteves Technical Team Bruna Silveira Guimarães Nathália Oliveira de Castro Pedro de Moura Bernardino Rafael Freitas Funcia Lemme Regina Freitas Fernandes Roberta de Albuquerque Cardoso 4 | 4 Executive Coordination Marcos Frederico Farias de Souza Carbon Mineralization in Brazil Internationalexperiencedemonstratesthatcarbon mineralizationcanprovideasafeandpermanentmethod forCO₂storagebyconvertingitintostablesolidminerals. InBrazil,thisapproachisparticularlyattractiveduetothe widespreadoccurrenceofmaficandultramaficrocks,which arefoundinbothancientgeologicalterrainsandlarge volcanicprovincesandsedimentarybasins.These formationsareconcentratedmainlyinthestatesofRio GrandedoSul,SantaCatarina,Paraná,SãoPaulo,Goiás, MinasGerais,Pará,Bahia,MatoGrosso,andMatoGrosso doSul. However,thelarge-scaledeploymentofthistechnologyin Brazilstilldependsonovercomingstrategicandtechnical challenges,manyofwhicharesharedwithothercountries, includingthecostsassociatedwithCO₂captureand storage,aswellastheenergyrequirementsofthese processes. IntheBraziliancontext,additionalchallengesincludewater managementandtheneedfordetailedaquifermappingto protectfreshwaterreservoirs,sinceareassuitablefor carbonmineralizationmayoverlapwithaquifersystemsof strategicimportance Paraná Basin TheParanáBasinhasbeentheprimaryfocusofcarbonmineralizationstudies inBrazilduetotheextensiveoccurrenceoftheSerraGeralFormation basalts,whichconstituteoneoftheworld'slargestigneousprovinces,with volcanicsequencesreachingupto2,000metersinthickness(ANP. 2017). Ata regionalscale,thesebasaltshavepotentialasgeologicalreservoirs, particularlywithinfracturedintervals,whereeffectiveporosityand permeabilityallowfluidcirculationandpromotecarbonationreactions (Orita and Cruz (2022)). Thebasin’slocationinadenselypopulatedandindustrializedregionalso representsalogisticaladvantage,asitreducesthedistancebetweenCO₂ emissionsourcesandpotentialstoragesites. However,thefracturedbasaltsoftheSerraGeralFormationarepartofthe SerraGeralAquiferSystem(SGAS),oneofthecountry’smostimportant groundwaterreservoirs,whichimposessignificanttechnicalconstraints. AccordingtoOrita and Cruz (2022), CO₂injectionshouldtakeplacein hydrogeologicallyisolatedportionsofthesystem,awayfromrechargezones anddisconnectedfromshallowaquifers,inordertominimizetherisksofCO₂ migrationandimpactsonwaterresources.Therefore,theprotectionofthe SGASisakeyprerequisiteforthefeasibilityofcarbonmineralizationprojects inthebasin. In2024,RepsolSinopecBrasil,inpartnershipwiththeInstituteofPetroleumandNaturalResources(IPR-PUCRS),inaugurated thefirstDirectAirCapture(DAC)pilotplantinLatinAmericainPortoAlegre,RioGrandedoSul.Withacapacitytoremove approximately300tonnesofCO₂peryear,theinitiativeispartoftheDAC.SI(DirectAirCaptureSystemIntegration)project, whichaimstodevelopnegative-emissionstechnologiesinBrazil. ThepotentialforCO₂mineralizationinthebasalticrocksoftheParanáBasinisbeinginvestigatedtoassessthesuitabilityof thispathwayunderBraziliangeologicalandenvironmentalconditions.Stillintheresearchanddevelopmentstage,withno operational-scaleapplicationdefinedtodate,theseeffortstakeintoaccounttheneedtoreconcilesubsurfaceutilizationwith multipleuses,includingtheprotectionofwaterresourcesassociatedwiththeSerraGeralAquiferSystem(SGAS). (PETRONOTÍCIAS, 2024; REPSOL, 2022). Follow EPE AprojectdeveloperinterestedinimplementingCCSprojectscanconsulttheGroundwaterInformation System(SIAGAS) asaninitialreference.However,itisessentialtoconducthigh-resolution hydrogeologicalstudiesintheprojectareatoensureanadequatecharacterizationoflocalconditions andtherebypreventcontaminationoffreshwateraquifers(salinity≤500ppm). InBrazil,SIAGAS,developedbytheGeologicalSurveyofBrazil(SGB),servesasadatabaseforstoring andaccessinginformationongroundwaterwells.However,thespatialrepresentativenessofthis databaseremainslimited,sincethedistributionofregisteredwellscoversonlyasmallportionofthe nationalterritory.Moreover,mostrecordscorrespondtorelativelyshallowwells,whichrestrictsthe availabilityofinformationondeeperaquifers. Therefore, the advancement of carbon mineralization in Brazil is likely to rely on the development of techniques, methodologies, and institutional arrangements tailored to the national context, with the participation of academic institutions, research centers, and companies in the energy sector. Todate,moststudieshavefocusedontheParaná Basinduetoitsextensivebasaltoccurrences. Nevertheless,otherBraziliansedimentarybasins, suchastheSantos,Campos,andPelotasbasins, havealsobeenidentifiedaspotentialcandidatesfor evaluatingthistypeofgeologicalstorage(EPE, 2026). GO MG BA MS MT PA Main brazilianstates with occurrences of mafic and ultramafic rocks SP PR SC RS